Activators of autophagic flux and phospholipase D and clearance of protein aggregates including tau and treatment of proteinopathies

ABSTRACT

The present application discloses compounds which are activators of autophagic flux and pharmaceutical compositions comprising said activators. It further discloses use of said compounds and pharmaceutical compositions in the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases, particularly proteinopathies and tauopathies such as Alzheimer&#39;s disease. It further discloses methods of enhancing autophagic flux.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

The present application is a division of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 15/480,220 filed Apr. 5, 2017, published as US 2017/0210759, is a Continuation-in-Part (CIP) application that claims benefit to International Application Serial No. PCT/US16/055561, filed Oct. 5, 2016, published as WO 2017/062500, which International Application claims benefit to U.S. Provisional Application Ser. No. 62/237,342, filed Oct. 5, 2015. The entire contents of the aforementioned applications are incorporated by reference as if recited in full herein.

FIELD OF THE DISCLOSURE

The present disclosure relates to compounds which are activators of autophagic flux and pharmaceutical compositions comprising said compounds. It further relates to use of said compounds in the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases, particularly Alzheimer's disease.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

Alzheimer's disease (AD) affects approximately five million Americans and this number is predicted to triple by 2050. At present, there are no therapies to treat Alzheimer's or other related tauopathies. While clinical trials using immunotherapy targeting amyloid beta (An) have had limited success, this in only subset of those afflicted with AD or other neurodegenerative diseases. Moreover, there are no therapies targeting other proteinopathies, including tau, the other major neuropathological component of AD. AD accounts for most of the dementias afflicting individuals over 65 and is estimated to cost $226 billion in healthcare, long-term care, and hospice for people with AD and other dementias annually. This extensive economic and societal burden does not account for lost income of many at-home primary caregivers including spouses and other family members.

Enhancing autophagy has been shown to have therapeutic potential in the treatment of Alzheimer's disease. Autophagic flux (including the fusion of autophagosomes to lysosomes) is a novel regulator of autophagy as it leads to the clearance of protein aggregates and reversal of pathophysiological decline. Therefore, there exists an ongoing need for promoters of autophagic flux and the clearance of autophagosomes bearing proteinopathies.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

In some embodiments, compounds including pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof, which are disclosed herein, are provided.

In some embodiments a pharmaceutical composition is provided comprising a compound disclosed herein or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof. In other embodiments, methods of making the compounds and pharmaceutical compositions are also provided in, e.g., the Examples provided below.

In some embodiments a method of treating a neurodegenerative disease comprising administering to a subject in need thereof an effective amount of a compound or pharmaceutical composition disclosed herein is provided.

In some embodiments a method of enhancing autophagic flux is provided. This method comprises providing to a cell or a protein aggregate an effective amount of a compound or pharmaceutical composition disclosed herein.

These and other aspects of the invention are further disclosed in the detailed description and examples which follow.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

The following drawings form part of the present specification and are included to further demonstrate certain aspects of the present invention. The invention may be better understood by reference to one or more of these drawings in combination with the detailed description of specific embodiments presented herein.

FIG. 1 is a graph showing a photodiode array (PDA) spectrum of WHYKD8 in mouse brain.

FIG. 2 shows Western blots of LC3-II levels in primary cortical neurons following a 6 hour treatment with WHYKD1 (±BafA1) or WHYKD5.

FIG. 3 shows Western blots of LC3-II, tau, and p62 levels in organotypic slice cultures following a 6 hour treatment with WHYKD1 (top) or WHYKD3, WHYKD5, WHYKD8, WHYKD9, or WHYKD12 (bottom).

FIG. 4 is a bar graph showing the activation of phospholipase D (PLD) by the WHYKD series compounds (10 μM), and their ability to convert phospholipids to phosphatidylethanols in the presence of ethanol. C=Control, 12=WHYKD12, 15=WHYKD15, 19=WHYKD19, 5=WHYKD5, 8=WHYKD8, Fipi=a noncompetitive inhibitor of PLD activity.

FIG. 5 is a bar graph showing the activation of phospholipase D (PLD) by the WHYKD series compounds (1 μM), and their ability to convert phospholipids to phosphatidylethanols in the presence of ethanol.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

Although macroautophagy is known to be an essential degradative process whereby autophagosomes mediate the engulfment and delivery of cytoplasmic components into lysosomes, the lipid changes underlying autophagosomal membrane dynamics are undetermined. The inventors have previously shown that PLD1, which is primarily associated with the endosomal system, partially relocalizes to the outer membrane of autophagosome-like structures upon nutrient starvation (Dall'Armi, 2010). The localization of PLD1, as well as the starvation-induced increase in PLD activity, are altered by wortmannin, a phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase inhibitor, suggesting PLD1 may act downstream of Vps34. Pharmacological inhibition of PLD and genetic ablation of PLD1 in mouse cells decreased the starvation-induced expansion of LC3-positive compartments, consistent with a role of PLD1 in the regulation of autophagy. Furthermore, inhibition of PLD results in higher levels of tau and p62 aggregates in organotypic brain slices. These in vitro and in vivo findings establish a role for PLD1 in autophagy.

In some embodiments, a compound is provided having the formula (II):

wherein Y¹ and Y² are independently selected from the group consisting of CH and N; wherein X is selected from the group consisting of H, halide, and aryl; wherein R¹ is selected from the group consisting of optionally substituted thioheteroaryl, hydroxyl-substituted (2-aminoethyl)aryl, halide, optionally substituted thiocycloalkyl wherein 1-3 carbon atoms of the cycloalkyl is optionally replaced with a heteroatom selected from the group consisting of O, S and N, and thioaryl, or a salt, enantiomer, racemate, mixture thereof, or combination thereof.

In some embodiments, the compound is selected from the group consisting of:

or a salt, enantiomer, racemate, mixture thereof, or combination thereof.

In one embodiment the compound is:

or a salt, enantiomer, racemate, mixture thereof, or combination thereof.

In another embodiment the compound is:

or a salt, enantiomer, racemate, mixture thereof, or combination thereof.

In some embodiments, a compound is provided having the formula (III):

wherein Y¹ is CH; wherein Y² is N; wherein X is halide; wherein R¹ is selected from the group consisting of optionally substituted thioheteroaryl, optionally substituted (2-aminoethyl)aryl, halide, optionally substituted thiocycloalkyl wherein 1-3 carbon atoms of the cycloalkyl is optionally replaced with a heteroatom selected from the group consisting of O, S and N, and thioaryl, or a salt, enantiomer, racemate, mixture thereof, or combination thereof.

In some embodiments, the compound is selected from the group consisting of:

or a salt, enantiomer, racemate, mixture thereof, or combination thereof.

In some embodiments, a compound is provided having the formula (IV):

wherein X is halide; wherein R¹ is selected from the group consisting of optionally substituted thioheteroaryl, optionally substituted (2-aminoethyl)aryl, halide, optionally substituted thiocycloalkyl wherein 1-3 carbon atoms of the cycloalkyl is optionally replaced with a heteroatom selected from the group consisting of O, S and N, and thioaryl, or a salt, enantiomer, racemate, mixture thereof, or combination thereof.

In some embodiments, the compound is selected from the group consisting of:

or a salt, enantiomer, racemate, mixture thereof, or combination thereof.

In some embodiments, a compound is provided having the formula (V):

wherein X is H; wherein R¹ is selected from the group consisting of optionally substituted thioheteroaryl, optionally substituted (2-aminoethyl)aryl, halide, optionally substituted thiocycloalkyl wherein 1-3 carbon atoms of the cycloalkyl is optionally replaced with a heteroatom selected from the group consisting of O, S and N, and thioaryl, or a salt, enantiomer, racemate, mixture thereof, or combination thereof.

In some embodiments, the compound is selected from the group consisting of:

or a salt, enantiomer, racemate, mixture thereof, or combination thereof.

In some embodiments, a compound is provided having the formula (VI):

wherein X is H; wherein R¹ is selected from the group consisting of optionally substituted thioheteroaryl, optionally substituted (2-aminoethyl)aryl, halide, optionally substituted thiocycloalkyl wherein 1-3 carbon atoms of the cycloalkyl is optionally replaced with a heteroatom selected from the group consisting of O, S and N, and thioaryl, or a salt, enantiomer, racemate, mixture thereof, or combination thereof.

In some embodiments, the compound is selected from the group consisting of:

or a salt, enantiomer, racemate, mixture thereof, or combination thereof.

In some embodiments, a compound is provided having the formula (VII):

wherein R¹ is selected from the group consisting of optionally substituted thioheteroaryl, optionally substituted (2-aminoethyl)aryl, halide, optionally substituted thiocycloalkyl wherein 1-3 carbon atoms of the cycloalkyl is optionally replaced with a heteroatom selected from the group consisting of O, S and N, and thioaryl, or a salt, enantiomer, racemate, mixture thereof, or combination thereof.

In some embodiments, the compound is selected from the group consisting of:

or a salt, enantiomer, racemate, mixture thereof, or combination thereof.

In some embodiments, a compound is provided having the formula (VIII):

wherein R¹ is selected from the group consisting of optionally substituted thioheteroaryl, optionally substituted (2-aminoethyl)aryl, halide, optionally substituted thiocycloalkyl wherein 1-3 carbon atoms of the cycloalkyl is optionally replaced with a heteroatom selected from the group consisting of O, S and N, and thioaryl, or a salt, enantiomer, racemate, mixture thereof, or combination thereof.

In some embodiments, the compound is selected from the group consisting of:

or a salt, enantiomer, racemate, mixture thereof, or combination thereof.

In some embodiments, a compound is provided having the formula (IX):

wherein Y³ is CH or N; wherein R² is optionally substituted (2-aminoethyl)aryl, or a salt, enantiomer, racemate, mixture thereof, or combination thereof.

In some embodiments, the compound is selected from the group consisting of:

or a salt, enantiomer, racemate, mixture thereof, or combination thereof.

In some embodiments, a compound is provided having the formula (X):

wherein Y³ is CH; wherein R² is selected from the group consisting of optionally substituted thioheteroaryl, optionally substituted (2-aminoethyl)aryl, halide, optionally substituted thiocycloalkyl wherein 1-3 carbon atoms of the cycloalkyl is optionally replaced with a heteroatom selected from the group consisting of O, S and N, and thioaryl, or a salt, enantiomer, racemate, mixture thereof, or combination thereof.

In some embodiments, the compound is selected from the group consisting of:

or a salt, enantiomer, racemate, mixture thereof, or combination thereof.

In some embodiments, a compound is provided having the formula (XI):

wherein R² is selected from the group consisting of optionally substituted thioheteroaryl, optionally substituted (2-aminoethyl)aryl, halide, optionally substituted thiocycloalkyl wherein 1-3 carbon atoms of the cycloalkyl is optionally replaced with a heteroatom selected from the group consisting of O, S and N, and thioaryl, or a salt, enantiomer, racemate, mixture thereof, or combination thereof.

In some embodiments, the compound is selected from the group consisting of:

or a salt, enantiomer, racemate, mixture thereof, or combination thereof.

In some embodiments, a compound is provided having the formula (XII):

wherein Y⁴ is CH or N; wherein R³ is selected from the group consisting of optionally substituted thioheteroaryl, optionally substituted (2-aminoethyl)aryl, halide, optionally substituted thiocycloalkyl wherein 1-3 carbon atoms of the cycloalkyl is optionally replaced with a heteroatom selected from the group consisting of O, S and N, and thioaryl, or a salt, enantiomer, racemate, mixture thereof, or combination thereof.

In some embodiments, the compound is selected from the group consisting of:

or a salt, enantiomer, racemate, mixture thereof, or combination thereof.

In some embodiments, a compound is provided having the formula (XIII):

wherein R² is selected from the group consisting of optionally substituted thioheteroaryl, optionally substituted (2-aminoethyl)aryl, halide, optionally substituted thiocycloalkyl wherein 1-3 carbon atoms of the cycloalkyl is optionally replaced with a heteroatom selected from the group consisting of O, S and N, and thioaryl, or a salt, enantiomer, racemate, mixture thereof, or combination thereof.

In some embodiments, the compound is selected from the group consisting of:

or a salt, enantiomer, racemate, mixture thereof, or combination thereof.

In some embodiments, a compound is provided having the formula (XIV):

wherein R² is selected from the group consisting of optionally substituted thioheteroaryl, optionally substituted (2-aminoethyl)aryl, halide, optionally substituted thiocycloalkyl wherein 1-3 carbon atoms of the cycloalkyl is optionally replaced with a heteroatom selected from the group consisting of O, S and N, and thioaryl, or a salt, enantiomer, racemate, mixture thereof, or combination thereof.

In some embodiments, the compound is selected from the group consisting of:

or a salt, enantiomer, racemate, mixture thereof, or combination thereof.

In some embodiments, a compound is provided having the formula (XV):

wherein X is H or halide; wherein Z¹ is O; wherein R⁴ is selected from the group consisting of H, optionally substituted alkyl, Et, CF₃, optionally substituted cycloalkyl, optionally substituted aryl, optionally substituted heteroaryl, and

In some embodiments, the compound is selected from the group consisting of:

or a salt, enantiomer, racemate, mixture thereof, or combination thereof.

In one embodiment the compound is

or a salt, enantiomer, racemate, mixture thereof, or combination thereof.

In some embodiments a pharmaceutical composition is provided comprising a compound disclosed herein or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof.

In some embodiments a method of treating a neurodegenerative disease comprising administering to a subject in need thereof an effective amount of a compound or pharmaceutical composition disclosed herein is provided. In some embodiments the neurodegenerative disease is a proteinopathy. Proteinopathies include, but are not limited to, Parkinson's disease, Alzheimer's disease, Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS), Huntington's disease, chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE), frontotemporal dementia (FTD), inclusion body myopathy (IBM), Paget's disease of bone (PDB), cerebral β-amyloid angiopathy, prion diseases, familial dementia, CADASIL, amyloidosis, Alexander disease, seipinopathies, type II diabetes, pulmonary alveolar proteinosis, cataracts, cystic fibrosis and sickle cell disease. In some aspects of this embodiment, the proteinopathy is a tauopathy. Tauopothies include but are not limited to, Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, Huntington's disease, progressive supranuclear palsy, chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE), frontotemporal dementia (FTD), Lytico-Bodig disease, subacute sclerosing panencephalitis, ganglioglioma, gangliocytoma, and argyrophilic grain disease. In a preferred embodiment, the neurodegenerative disease is Alzheimer's disease.

In some embodiments a method of enhancing autophagic flux is provided. This method comprises providing to a cell or a protein aggregate an effective amount of a compound or pharmaceutical composition disclosed herein.

The embodiments described in this disclosure can be combined in various ways. Any aspect or feature that is described for one embodiment can be incorporated into any other embodiment mentioned in this disclosure. While various novel features of the inventive principles have been shown, described and pointed out as applied to particular embodiments thereof, it should be understood that various omissions and substitutions and changes may be made by those skilled in the art without departing from the spirit of this disclosure. Those skilled in the art will appreciate that the inventive principles can be practiced in other than the described embodiments, which are presented for purposes of illustration and not limitation.

EXAMPLES

The following examples are provided to further illustrate certain aspects of the present invention. These examples are illustrative only and are not intended to limit the scope of the invention in any way.

Example 1

Example Synthetic Schemes

Scheme 1 shows the synthesis of compounds of the formula:

e.g., compounds of formula (II) and formula (III).

Representative General Procedure

A 4-chloroquinazoline and thiol were stirred in anhydrous THF at room temperature. A base, such as triethylamine, was added. The reaction mixture was heated to 80° C. and was stirred overnight at said temperature, after which it was allowed to cool to room temperature. It was then diluted with distilled water, and the organic material was extracted with ethyl acetate (3×). The combined organic extracts were washed with brine (lx) and dried with anhydrous sodium sulfate. The solvent was evaporated in vacuo, and the crude material was purified either via column chromatography or prep TLC, employing either 10% MeOH in methylene chloride or 10:1 pentane:diethyl ether as the eluent.

The above procedure is representative. Other examples disclosed herein could be made by similar techniques or other methods known in the art.

Scheme 2 shows preparation of 1-chloro-7-fluoroisoquinoline.

Scheme 3 shows the synthesis of compounds of the formula:

e.g., compounds of formula (IV), formula (V), formula (VI), formula (VII), and formula (VIII).

Scheme 4 shows the synthesis of compounds of the formula:

e.g., compounds of formula (XII), and formula (XIII).

Scheme 5 shows the synthesis of compounds of the formula:

e.g., compounds of formula (IX), formula (X), and formula (XI).

Scheme 6 shows the synthesis of compounds of the formula:

e.g., compounds of formula (XIV).

Example 2

Activators of Autophagic Flux and Phospholipase D

The WHYKD series of compounds were synthesized for optimal brain penetrance based on the molecular weight (MW) and partition coefficient (log P), according to Lipinski's Rule for CNS penetrance: MW≤400, log P≤5.

Activators according to the formula:

were synthesized according to the schemes above. Molecular weights and log P were calculated. Results are shown in Table 1 below.

TABLE 1 PROJECT STRUCTURE ID M.W. log P X Y¹ Y² R¹

WHYKD3 323.17 3.85 Br N N thioheteroaryl

WHYKD4 369.44 5.69 aryl N N Thioheteroaryl

WHYKD5 262.27 3.18 F N N Thioheteroryl

WHYKD6 244.28 3.02 H N N thioheteroaryl

WHYKD7 278.72 3.58 Cl N N thioheteroaryl

WHYKD8 299.76 3.91 Cl N N (2- aminoethyl)aryl

WHYKD9 182.58 2.58 F N N Cl

WHYKD10 243.29 2.9  H N CH thioheteroaryl

WHYKD11 261.28 3.06 F N CH thioheteroaryl

WHYKD12 262.35 4.38 F N N thiocycloalkyl

WHYKD13 316.44 5.21 F N N thiocycloalkyl

WHYKD14 314.42 4.66 F N N thiocycloalkyl

WHYKD15 248.32 3.96 F N N thiocycloalkyl

WHYKD16 274.36 4.19 F N N thiocycloalkyl

WHYKD17 357.49 4.09 F N N thiocycloalkyl

WHYKD18 386.48 4.41 F N N thiocycloalkyl

WHYKD19 264.32 2.63 F N N thiocycloalkyl

WHYKD20 296.36 4.8 F N N thioaryl

WHYKD30 356.23 5.16 I N N thiocycloalkyl

Activators according to the formula:

were synthesized according to the schemes above. Molecular weights and log P were calculated. Results are shown in Table 2 below.

TABLE 2 PROJECT STRUCTURE ID M.W. log P Y³ R²

WHYKD21 272.33 3.36 N (2-aminoethyl)aryl

WHYKD23 271.34 3.66 CH (2-aminoethyl)aryl

Activators according to the formula:

were synthesized according to the schemes above. Molecular weights and log P were calculated. Results are shown in Table 3 below.

TABLE 3 PROJECT STRUCTURE ID M.W. log P Y⁴ R³

WHYKD1 251.29 2.56 N thioheteroaryl

WHYKD2 272.33 2.89 N (2-aminoethyl)aryl

WHYKD22 271.34 3.34 CH (2-aminoethyl)aryl

Activators according to the formula:

were synthesized according to the schemes above. Molecular weights and log P were calculated. Results are shown in Table 4 below.

TABLE 4 PROJECT log STRUCTURE ID M.W. P X Y¹ Y² R⁴ Z¹

WHYKD24 164.14 1.02 F N N H O

Example 3

Design of Derivatives

Several series of derivatives were synthesized based on the following lead compounds:

In addition to log P, the topological polar surface area (tPSA), C Log P (log P calculated by group contribution method), and Log S (solubility) were calculated. Results are shown in the Tables below.

TABLE 5 Modifications to the core and side chain (Series 1) STRUCTURE log P tPSA CLogP LogS

3.35 52.68 2.65154 −3.235

3.12 61.47 2.34241 −3.295

2.94 40.32 1.83259 −4.663

3.19 27.96 3.25375 −3.864

4.14 12.36 4.64041 −4.354

2.71 49.11 2.01759 −4.354

2.95 36.75 3.23654 ~3.554

2.8  21.59 2.80041 −3.813

4.56 12.36 5.19941 −4.832

TABLE 6 Modifications to the core and side chain (Series 2) STRUCTURE log P tPSA CLogP LogS

2.31 77.4  0.803829 −1.704

2.07 86.19 0.539011 −1.765

1.9  65.04 −0.0366305 ~3.133

1.66 73.83 0.148224 ~2.824

2.14 52.68 1.40054 −2.334

1.91 61.47 1.38428 −2.024

3.09 37.08 2.83701 −2.823

3.51 37.08 3.39601 ~3.301

1.76 46.31 0.997011 −2.283

TABLE 7 Modifications to the core and side chain (Series 3) STRUCTURE log P tPSA CLogP LogS

2.89 77.4  0.647513 −1.626

2.65 86.19 0.382662 −1.686

2.48 65.04 ~0.192932 ~3.117

2.25 73.83 ~0.00808129 ~2.806

2.73 52.68 1.24423 ~2.303

2.49 61.47 1.22796 −1.992

3.68 37.08 2.68066 ~2.893

4.09 37.08 3.23966 −3.372

2.34 46.31 0.840662 ~2.256

TABLE 8 Modifications to the core and side chain (Series 4) STRUCTURE log P tPSA CLogP LogS

1.68 77.4  0.647513 ~1.441

1.45 86.19 0.382662 −1.501

1.28 65.04 ~0.192932 ~2.932

1.04 73.83 ~0.00808129 ~2.621

1.52 52.68 1.24423 ~2.119

1.28 61.47 1.22796 ~1.808

2.47 37.08 2.68066 ~2.704

2.89 37.08 3.23966 ~3.183

1.13 46.31 0.840662 ~2.071

TABLE 9 Modifications to the core and side chain (Series 5) STRUCTURE log P tPSA CLogP LogS

1.68 77.4  0.647513 ~1.466

1.45 86.19 0.382662 ~1.526

1.28 65.04 ~0.192932 ~2.957

1.04 73.83 ~0.00808129 ~2.646

1.52 52.68 1.24423 −2.144

1.28 61.47 1.22796 ~1.832

2.47 37.08 2.68066 ~2.733

2.89 37.08 3.23966 ~3.212

1.13 46.31 0.840662 −2.096

TABLE 10 Modifications to the core and side chain (Series 6) STRUCTURE log P tPSA CLogP LogS

2.11 77.4  0.857513  ~1.525

1.87 86.19 0.592663  −1.585

1.7  65.04 0.0170677 ~3.017

1.46 73.83 0.201919  −2.705

1.94 52.68 1.45423  −2.203

1.71 61.47 1.43796  −1.892

2.89 37.08 2.89066  ~2.787

3.31 37.08 3.44966  −3.266

1.55 46.31 1.05066  −2.155

TABLE 11 Modifications to the core and side chain (Series 7) STRUCTURE log P tPSA CLogP LogS

1.63 74.27 1.1096  −1.275

1.4  83.06 0.834   ~1.333

1.23 61.91 0.272969 ~2.704

0.99 70.7  0.457768 ~2.391

1.47 49.55 1.70682  −1.904

1.24 58.34 1.69005  ~1.592

2.42 33.95 3.132   ~2.403

2.84 33.95 3.691   ~2.883

1.08 43.18 1.292   −1.864

TABLE 12 Modifications to the core and side chain (Series 8) STRUCTURE log P tPSA CLogP LogS

1.96 74.27 0.8996   ~1.745

1.72 83.06 0.624   ~1.803

1.55 61.91 0.0629689 −3.174

1.31 70.7  0.247768  −2.862

1.79 49.55 1.49682  −2.374

1.56 58.34 1.48005  ~2.062

2.74 33.95 2.922   ~2.874

3.16 33.95 3.481   ~3.353

1.4  43.18 1.082   ~2.335

TABLE 13 Modifications to the core and side chain (Series 9) STRUCTURE log P tPSA CLogP LogS

3.0  65.04 1.74907  −2.051

2.76 73.83 1.47586  ~2.109

2.59 52.68 0.911314 ~3.542

2.36 61.47 1.09641  ~3.23 

2.84 40.32 2.34546  −2.728

2.6  49.11 2.32952  ~2.416

3.79 24.72 3.77386  ~3.323

4.2  24.72 4.33286  −3.802

2.45 33.95 1.93386  ~2.687

TABLE 14 Modifications to the core and side chain (Series 10) STRUCTURE log P tPSA CLogP LogS

2.94 65.04 1.53907  −2.188

2.71 73.83 1.26586  ~2.247

2.54 52.68 0.701314 −3.68 

2.3  61.47 0.886405 −3.367

2.78 40.32 2.13546  −2.866

2.55 49.11 2.11952  −2.554

3.73 24.72 3.56386  ~3.468

4.15 24.72 4.12286  ~3.947

2.39 33.95 1.72386  ~2.824

TABLE 15 Quinazolinones (Series 11) STRUCTURE log P tPSA CLogP LogS

1.02 41.46 0.506065 ~1.702

1.42 41.46 1.07606  −2.152

1.69 41.46 1.22606  ~2.273

0.86 41.46 0.305   ~1.452

Example 4

Biological Testing of WHYKD Compounds

The assays listed below were carried out using a transfected HEK 293 (Human Embryo Kidney) cell line that has been engineered to express fluorescently tagged (mKate2) Tau (unless otherwise noted). The cells were grown in the presence of the antibiotic doxycycline. When the antibiotic is removed the cells produce Tau (which can be quantified), thus allowing the test compounds' effects on Tau's production to be compared. Doxycycline was removed for 72 hours prior to exposure to the test compounds to promote sufficient Tau production. Cells were subsequently plated into plates for each of the assays described below.

Autophagy, Aggregate and Tau-mKate2 IC50 Assays

Preparation of Plated Tet-Regulated HEK 293 Cells (Jump-In™ Cells)

1) HEK cells with tet-regulated expression of mKate2 tagged Tau were grown in DMEM medium (Dulbecco's Modified Eagle's Medium) containing 0.5 μg/mL doxycycline (Dox) (MP-Bio #198955), after 3-5 days Dox was removed by washing the cells twice with sterile phosphate buffered saline (PBS; Invitrogen #14190-144), cells were left in DMEM without Dox for 72 hours (to further clear remaining Dox in cells).

2) 96 well, black plates with ultra-thin clear bottom (Costar #3720) were coated with Poly D Lysine (PDL) (Sigma-p0899-M wt. 70,000-150,000) or commercially sourced transparent polystyrene/glass bottom plates were used and coated. PDL was aspirated after 2 hours and plates were allowed to dry out for another 2-3 hours. The coating procedure was completed under sterile conditions. Plates were used immediately after coating.

3) Cells were detached from the flasks using triple express (Invitrogen #12605-010) and plated in PDL-coated 96 well plates. For plating, 200 μL of medium was added to each well at a concentration of 400 k cells/ml (80 k cells/well). 1 row of peripheral wells on all sides was spared to prevent any changes in experimental conditions due to evaporation from these wells. Warm medium/PBS (containing no cells) was pipetted into the peripheral wells and PBS was pipetted into spaces between wells to maintain homogenous conditions across the central wells. Cells were then allowed to settle down and attach to the bottom of the plate for 18-24 hours.

Treatment and Staining with Cyto-ID™

Cyto-ID™ assay measures autophagic vacuoles and monitors autophagic flux in lysosomally inhibited live cells using a novel dye that selectively labels accumulated autophagic vacuoles. The dye used in the kit prevents its accumulation within lysosomes, but enables labelling of vacuoles associated with the autophagy pathway using the LC3 biomarker.

The test compounds (along with CytoID™ dye and Hoechst stain) were added to the cells and incubated for 3 hours. Reference compounds were also used in each plate, Rapamycin was used for autophagy induction and chloroquine was used for lysosomal inhibition. After 3 hours test compound was aspirated off and kept. Cells were then washed and read using a fluorescence plate reader. Hoescht, Cyto-ID™ and mKate2 were measured using 3 distinct wavelengths on the plate reader. The Hoescht measurement allowed normalisation of results across wells. After reading, test compound was re-added and the cells are left for a further 21 hours. At the 24 hour time point cells were once again washed and plates read using the fluorescence plate reader.

1) Before initiating treatment, all wells were washed once with warm FluoroBrite™ (FB) DMEM (Dulbecco's Modified Eagle's Medium) (Invitrogen # A18967-01) with 10% Fetal Bovine Serum, dialyzed (FBS; Invitrogen #26400-044) and 1% MEM (Minimal Essential Media) NEAA (Non Essential Amino Acids). 280 μl of warm medium/PBS was maintained in peripheral wells.

2) Test samples were prepared in warm FluoroBrite™ DMEM and with 10% FBS and 1% NEAA (FB-DMEM). Rapamycin 200 nM (Enzo # BML-A275-0025) was used for autophagy induction and 15 mM chloroquine was used for lysosomal inhibition (bafilomycin or similar compounds were not used as they give a false negative result in the assay). Dimethyl Sulfoxide 1:1000 (DMSO; Fisher #BP231-100) was used as control. Autophagosome marker Cyto ID™ (1:500; Enzo #ENZ-51031-k200) and Hoechst (1:200) was added to these test sample preparations before treating the cells.

3) The treatment groups were staggered in order to obtain similar conditions across all groups. For an n=6, 3 control wells were near the periphery and 3 were near the center of the plate, same was true for Rapamycin and any other drug treatments.

4) Cells were treated/stained for 3 hours at 37° C. At 3 hours post-treatment, test sample preparation containing Cyto-ID™ was carefully aspirated and transferred to a fresh sterile microplate (Falcon #353072) for reuse. Medium in the treatment plate was immediately replaced with warm FB-DMEM. The new plate with test compound preparations was placed in an incubator at 37° C.

5) Treatment plate was then washed quickly 3 times with warm FB-DMEM (100 μL/well). After the 3rd wash 50 μL of warm medium was left in each well. At this point, the plate was ready for reading. See details in Reading Plate section. Hoescht was read at Excitation wavelength (Ex)=355 nm & Emission wavelength (Em)=446 nm. mKate2 was read at Ex=575 nm & Em=630 nm. Cyto-ID™ was read at Ex=463 nm & Em=534 nm.

6) Afterwards, medium was replaced with corresponding wells of the plate containing test compound/stain preparation and re-incubated at 37° C.

7) At 24 hours post reaction all medium was aspirated and the plate was washed 3 times with warm FB-DMEM, and read again for Hoescht (Ex=355 nm Em=446 nm), CytoID™ (Ex=463 nm; Em=534 nm) and mKate2 (Ex=575 nm; Em=630 nm) in 80 μl of FB-DMEM.

Proteostat™ Protein Aggregation Assay

Proteostat™ assay was used to detect aggresomes via measurement of p62. Aggresomes are inclusion bodies that form when the ubiquitin-proteasome machinery is overwhelmed with aggregation-prone proteins. Typically, an aggresome forms in response to some cellular stress, such as hyperthermia, viral infection, or exposure to reactive oxygen species. Aggresomes may provide a cytoprotective function by sequestering the toxic, aggregated proteins and may also facilitate their ultimate elimination from cells by autophagy. Following the final plate read described in the Cyto-ID™ assay described above, Proteostat™ detection reagent was added to every well and the plate was incubated for 15 minutes. Following this incubation, the plate was read by fluorescence plate reader at the specified wavelength. After this plate read, the cells were fixed by incubating with warm paraformaldehyde for 8 minutes. The fixed cells were then read by plate reader as before.

8) Detection solution was prepared by adding 10 μl Proteostat™ detection reagent (ENZ-51023-KP002) and 200 μL of 10× assay buffer into 1790 μL water and mixing well.

9) 20 μL was added per well (each well had 80 μl of Fluorobrite™ media with no FBS) and incubated in the dark for 15 min at room temperature.

10) Fluorescence for Proteostat™ (Ex=550 nm; Em=600 nm) was then read.

11) Plate was fixed by adding warm 4% paraformaldehyde 100 μL (PFA; EMS #15710) to all the wells and was incubated at room temperature for 8 min. PFA was removed and plate was washed with PBS (room temp) 3 times.

12) Plate was read again with fixed cells and same configuration at plate reader.

Note: CytoID™ and Proteostat™ are measures for LC3 and p62, which can be substituted using fluorescent tagged antibodies with corresponding fluorophores.

Reading Plate Using Tecan M200

13) Plate was transferred to plate reader (Tecan Infinite M200) and read at optimal gain for mKate2, Cyto ID™ and Proteostat™ (last read only).

14) Each well was read at 5 consistent locations per well for the three signals. Each of these 5 locations was flashed 25 times. Signal from each well was first recorded as an average of 25 flashes, and the final value was based on average of 5 read locations per well. A peripheral border of 1000 μm was spared in all wells to mitigate any inconsistencies in reads due to minor cell loss across the periphery resulting from aspiration and washings. Peripheral wells were used to detect any background noise due to medium or PBS.

15) mKate2 was read at Ex=575 nm and Em=630 nm. Cyto-ID™ was read at Ex=463 nm and Em=534 nm. For the final read, Proteostat™ was read at Ex=490 nm and Em=600 nm. Excitation & Emission Bandwidth for all three reads were 9 nm & 20 nm respectively.

16) Calculations were initially subtracted from well background (media only well) and normalized using Hoescht levels.

Reading Plate Using IN Cell Analyzer 2000 (High Content Imaging).

17) Plate was transferred to IN Cell analyzer 2000 and imaged for mKate2, Cyto ID™, Proteostat™ and Hoechst (last read only).

18) Each well was imaged at 4 consistent fields located around the center of the well. All images were taken using 20× objective. The average reading from these 4 fields was recorded as the reading for that corresponding well. No images were taken from periphery of the wells to mitigate any inconsistencies in reads due to minor cell loss across the periphery resulting from aspiration and washings. Peripheral wells were used to detect any background noise due to medium or PBS.

19) FITC/FITC filter (Ex=490 nm−bandwidth 20 nm/Em=525 nm−bandwidth 36 nm) was used to image Cyto ID™. mKate2 was imaged using TexasRed/TexasRed filters (Ex=579 nm−bandwidth 34 nm/Em=624 nm−bandwidth 40 nm). For the Proteostat™ images FITC/dsRed combination was used (Ex=490 nm−bandwidth 20 nm/Em=605 nm−bandwidth 52 nm). Nuclei were imaged using DAPI/DAPI filter set (Ex=350 nm−bandwidth 50 nm/Em=455 nm−bandwidth 50 nm).

p62 Aggregate and Tau Aggregate Western Blot Assay

Western blot assays were performed to determine protein changes in Tau and p62. Cells were cultured as above and incubated with test compounds for 24 h. Following test compound incubation, the test compound was aspirated off and cells were washed before harvesting. Cells were spun at a low speed and supernatant was aspirated to leave the cell pellet. The cell pellet was then homogenized in buffer, centrifuged at high speed, and the supernatant aspirated and further separated into total fraction and aggregate fraction allowing quantification of soluble and insoluble proteins. Western blots were run on the samples, gels transferred to nitrocellulose and incubated with antibodies for Tau and p62. After incubation with secondary antibodies for detection, the bands of protein were quantified by chemiluminescence.

1) Jump-In™ cells (see above) were maintained in 0.5 μg/mL doxycycline until use.

2) Three days prior to plating, cells were replated at 40% confluency in media without doxycycline.

3) The day prior to experimentation, 750 000 cells were plated per well in a 6-well plate (250 000 cells in 12 well plate).

4) On the day of experiment, cells were washed in warmed HBSS (Hank's Balanced Salt Solution) twice before media containing test compound (n=3 per compound per dose) or vehicle were added to the wells (1.5 mL in 6 well, 600 μL in 12 well). Plates were incubated for 24 hours at 37° C. with 5% CO₂.

5) Cells were rinsed twice in warmed HBSS before harvesting in 1 mL HBSS and transferred to 1.5 mL microtubes.

6) Samples were spun at 500×g for 2 min at 4° C., and HBSS supernatant aspirated, leaving only the cell pellet. The cell pellet may be flash frozen and stored at −80° C. until use.

Sample Preparation

7) The cell pellet was homogenized in RIPA+(Radio-Immunoprecipitation Assay) buffer containing protease inhibitors and phosphatase inhibitors and gently homogenized using a cell homogenizer.

8) Samples were then centrifuged for 20 min at 20,000 g at 4° C.

9) The supernatant was transferred to a new tube.

10) The supernatant was quantified for protein concentration using the Pierce™ Protein Assay.

11) Total fraction: 200 μg of supernatant was used to make a 1 mg/ml protein solution by adding RIPA+ buffer to bring the volume to 130 μL and adding 20 μL of 1M DTT (dithiothreitol) (to make a final concentration of 100 mM DTT) and 50 μL of 4× Invitrogen NuPAGE LDS (lithium dodecyl sulfate) loading buffer (4×, 10 ml−NP0007) with 100 mM DTT.

12) Aggregate fraction: For aggregates, 100 μg of sample was brought up to a final volume of 900 μL.

13) 100 μL of 10% sarkosyl solution was added to the sample and rotated at 4° C. for 60 min.

14) The sample was then centrifuged at 100,000 g for 60 min at 4° C.

15) The supernatant was carefully removed, leaving the pellet undisturbed. The tube was inverted to remove any additional liquid. If there was excess liquid, steps 12-14 were repeated to ensure a pure aggregate sample. Pellets were resuspended and solubilized in 65 μL of PBS before the addition of 10 μL of 1M and 25 μL of 4× Invitrogen NuPAGE LDS loading buffer with 100 mM DTT.

Electrophoresis/Western Blot

16) Prior to loading, the samples were heated at 90° C. for 2 min. A quick spin of the samples was performed to ensure there was no condensation on the tube. The 4-12% Tris-Bis gel was prepared using 1×MOPS buffer (Invitrogen—NP0001) and anti-oxidant (NP0005). For the soluble fraction, 2 μg of sample was loaded to each well; for the insoluble fraction, 5 μg of sample was loaded per well. 8 μL of Invitrogen Sharp MW standard was then loaded (optimally, all wells had the same volume of sample buffer.)

17) Sample was electrophoresed at 150V for approximately 1 h15 min (until the running dye reached the base of the gel.)

18) The gel was then equilibrated in transfer buffer (25 mM Tris-HCl pH 8.3, 192 mM glycine, 20% (v:v) methanol) for 5 min.

19) The gel was then removed and transferred onto 0.2 μM nitrocellulose (GE BA83 10600001) at 200 mA for 90 minutes.

20) After transfer, the blot was briefly stained (15 s) with 0.1% Ponceau S in 5% acetic acid to ensure consistent sample loading between lanes.

21) The blot was then rinsed in TBS-T (Tris-buffered saline-polysorbate) for 2 min to remove the Ponceau S stain prior to immunoprobing.

Immunodetection

22) Samples were blocked in 5% milk in TBST for 30 min, and then rinsed in TBS-T until all buffer was clear (no milk residues remained in solution).

23) Blots were incubated in primary antibody (1:4000 PHF1 or CP27 for tau; 1:4000 p62 Abnova for p62; 1:5000 GAPDH (glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase) for loading control) overnight in SuperBlock™ TBS-T at 4° C. on a rocking table.

24) After primary antibody exposure, blots were washed three times in TBS-T for 15 min.

25) Blots were then incubated in 1:4000 secondary antibody (Jackson Laboratories goat anti-mouse HRP conjugate).

26) After secondary, blots were washed three times in TBST for 15 min.

27) Blots were then developed using Millipore chemiluminescent fluid (1 ml per reagent; WBKLS0500) and detected using a Fuji LAS3000 Imaging unit at increments of 10 seconds.

28) Images were quantified using resident software or NIH Image J.

PLD Assay

Cells were incubated with test compound for 24 hours. 25 minutes prior to harvest at 24 hours, 3% ethanol solution was added to the wells to catalyze cleavage of the phospholipid. Cells were then placed on ice, washed and harvested. The harvested cells were centrifuged and the supernatant was aspirated and the pellet kept. The pellet was resuspended and chloroform/methanol lipid extraction was performed. The sample was centrifuged and the organic layer was separated, dried under nitrogen and stored at −80° C. On the day of analysis, samples were resuspended and analysed by LC/MS. All phosphatidylethanol species (PEtOH32-40:0-6:16/18:0/1) were combined together and represented as total lipid content (all lipid species).

The assay was run in e18 primary cortical neurons from PLD1 or PLD2 KO mice cultured for 14 days. Alternatively, the assay can be run in the cells described above in the presence of excess PLD1 or PLD2 inhibitor to preclude that particular action from contributing to the effect of the drug.

1) Jump-In™ cells (see above) were maintained in 0.5 μg/mL doxycycline until use. For neurons, e18 fetuses were used, cortical neurons extracted and plated onto PLD-collagen coated 6 well plates and incubated for 14 days prior to use.

2) Three days prior to plating, cells were replated at 40% confluency in media without doxycycline.

3) The day prior to experimentation, 750 000 cells were plated per well in a 6-well plate (250 000 cells in 12 well plate).

4) On the day of experiment, cells were washed in warmed HBSS twice before media containing test compound (n=3 per compound per dose), inhibitor (355 nM ML298 or 50 nM VU0150669), or vehicle are added to the wells (1.5 mL in 6 well, 600 μL in 12 well). Plates were incubated for 24 hours at 37° C. with 5% CO₂.

5) 25 minutes prior to harvest, a 165 μL of a 3% ethanol solution was added to each well.

6) For harvesting, plates were placed on ice and cells were rinsed twice with ice cold HBSS before harvesting in 1 mL HBSS and transferring to 1.5 mL microtubes.

7) Samples were spun at 500×g for 2 min at 4° C., and HBSS supernatant aspirated, leaving only the cell pellet. The cell pellet could be flash frozen and stored at −80° C. until use.

TABLE 16 Biological Testing of WHKD Compounds 1-24 % inhibition % Increase Cytotoxixity Compound Tau/aggregate (1 μM) Autophagy Markers PLD LC50 WHYKD1 No Effect @ 2 μM No Effect @ 2 μM NC >100 μM WHYKD2 No Effect @ 2 μM No Effect @ 2 μM ND >100 μM WHYKD3 No Effect @ 2 μM No Effect @ 2 μM NC >100 μM WHYKD4 No Effect @ 2 μM No Effect @ 2 μM ND >100 μM WHYKD5 35% 20%  1.7X >100 μM WHYKD6 No Effect @ 2 μM No Effect @ 2 μM ND >100 μM WHYKD7 No Effect @ 2 μM No Effect @ 2 μM ND >100 μM WHYKD8 30% 25%  2.8X >100 μM WHYKD9 No Effect @ 2 μM No Effect @ 2 μM ND >100 μM WHYKD10 No Effect @ 2 μM No Effect @ 2 μM ND >100 μM WHYKD11 No Effect @ 2 μM No Effect @ 2 μM ND >100 μM WHYKD12 60% 40% 3.4 >100 μM WHYKD13 No Effect @ 2 μM No Effect @ 2 μM ND >100 μM WHYKD14 No Effect @ 2 μM No Effect @ 2 μM ND >100 μM WHYKD15 65% 40% 3.6 >100 μM WHYKD16 No Effect @ 2 μM No Effect @ 2 μM ND >100 μM WHYKD17 No Effect @ 2 μM No Effect @ 2 μM ND >100 μM WHYKD18 No Effect @ 2 μM No Effect @ 2 μM ND >100 μM WHYKD19 55% 35% 3.5 >100 μM WHYKD20 No Effect @ 2 μM No Effect @ 2 μM ND >100 μM WHYKD21 No Effect @ 2 μM No Effect @ 2 μM ND >100 μM WHYKD22 No Effect @ 2 μM No Effect @ 2 μM ND >100 μM WHYKD23 No Effect @ 2 μM No Effect @ 2 μM ND >100 μM WHYKD24 30% 15% ND >100 μM ND—not done, NC—no change

TABLE 17 Bioiogical Testing of WHKD Compounds 30-36 LC50 EC50 (nM) - EC50 (nM) - TI - Compound (mM) Proteostat mKate2 mKate2 WHYKD30 >200 2510 1113 180 WHYKD32 >200 1992 1562 128 WHYKD33 >200 8805 637 314 WHYKD35 >200 1295 518 386 WHYKD36 67 383 1044 64 LC50 (50% lethal concentration) was tested using an XTT assay for cell viability, Measurements listed as 200 represent the upper concentration limit used for testing, whereby the viability is >50% at this upper limit. EC50 (50% reduction) was based on the concentration whereby the levels were 50% lower than the initiail readings based on mKate2 fluorescence (tau tag) or Proteostat levels (fluorescent marker of aggregates). TI (therapeutic index) was based on the ratio of LC50:EC50, with the upper limit being 200 mM

TABLE 18 PLD1 & PLD2 Activity Proteostat (nM) using mKate2 (nM) using pharmacological inhibitor pharmacological inhibitor PLD2/PLD1 PLD2/PLD1 Compound PLD1 PLD2 ratio PLD1 PLD2 ratio WHYKD36 394 604 1.5 1332 2284 1.7 To compare the two isoforms of phospholipase D, samples were treated with either ML298, a PLD2 inhibitor (355 nM) that would yield PLD1 activity or a PLD1 inhibitor (VU0150669, 50 nM) to yield only PLD2 activity.

Example 5

Detection and Results of WHYKD Compounds

A photodiode array (PDA) was used to detect WHYKD8 in mouse brain (FIG. 1). The sample was readily detected with a discrete peak based on time (left) and with a measurable area under the curve (AUC) (inset).

LC3-II levels were measured in primary cortical neurons following 6 hours of treatment with WHYKD1, WHYKD5, or WHYKD1+BafA1 (FIG. 2). The presence of LC3-II is an indication of autophagy.

LC3-II levels were then measured in organotypic slice cultures following 6 hours of treatment with WHYKD1 (FIG. 3, top panel). Other compounds in the WHYKD series produced similar results (FIG. 3, bottom panel). RFP is a tag on the tau protein and also can be probed.

These experiments show that the WHYKD series of compounds can induce autophagy and reduce the aggregated forms of tau as well as its aggresome surrogate p62.

PLD activation converts phospholipids to phosphatidylethanols in the presence of ethanol. This conversion was measured to show that the WHYKD series of compounds activate PLD at 10 μM concentration (FIG. 4) and at 1 μM (FIG. 5). FIPI is a non-competitive inhibitor of PLD activity and was used as a negative control.

All patents, patent applications, and publications cited above are incorporated herein by reference in their entirety as if recited in full herein.

The invention being thus described, it will be obvious that the same may be varied in many ways. Such variations are not to be regarded as a departure from the spirit and scope of the invention and all such modifications are intended to be included within the scope of the following claims. 

What is claimed is:
 1. A compound having the formula (II):

wherein one of Y¹ and Y² is CH and one of Y¹ and Y² is N; wherein X is selected from the group consisting of H, halide, and aryl; wherein R¹ is selected from the group consisting of optionally substituted thioheteroaryl, hydroxyl-substituted (2-aminoethyl)aryl, and optionally substituted thiocycloalkyl wherein the cycloalkyl is a 5 or 6-membered cycloalkyl and wherein 1-3 carbon atoms of the cycloalkyl is optionally replaced with a heteroatom selected from the group consisting of O and S, or a salt, enantiomer, racemate, mixture thereof, or combination thereof.
 2. The compound of claim 1, wherein the compound is selected from the group consisting of:

or a salt thereof.
 3. A compound having the formula (III):

wherein Y¹ is CH; wherein Y² is N; wherein X is halide; wherein R¹ is selected from the group consisting of optionally substituted thioheteroaryl, optionally substituted (2-aminoethyl)aryl, and optionally substituted thiocycloalkyl wherein the cycloalkyl is a 5 or 6-membered cycloalkyl and wherein 1-3 carbon atoms of the cycloalkyl is optionally replaced with a heteroatom selected from the group consisting of O and S, and thioaryl, or a salt, enantiomer, racemate, mixture thereof, or combination thereof.
 4. The compound of claim 3, wherein the compound is selected from the group consisting of:

or a salt thereof.
 5. A pharmaceutical composistion comprising a compound of claims 1 or 4, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof.
 6. A method of treating a neurodegenerative disease comprising administering to a subject in need thereof an effective amount of a compound of claim 1 or 3, wherein the neurodegenerative disease is a proteinopathy.
 7. The method of claim 6, wherein the proteinopathy is a tauopathy.
 8. A method of treating a neurodegenerative disease comprising administering to a subject in need thereof an effective amount of a compound of claims 1 or 3, wherein the neurodegenerative disease is Alzheimer's disease.
 9. A method of enhancing autophagic flux comprising providing to a cell or a protein aggregate an effective amount of a compound of claims 1 or
 3. 10. A method of treating a proteinopathy comprising administering to a subject in need thereof an effective amount of a compound of claims 1 or
 3. 11. A method of treating a tauopathy comprising administering to a subject in need therof an effective amound of a compound of claims 1 or
 3. 12. A method of treating a neurodegenerative disease comprising administering to a subject in need thereof an effective amount of the pharmaceutical composition of claim 5, wherein the neurodegenerative disease is proteinopathy.
 13. The method of claim 12, wherein the proteinopathy is tauopathy.
 14. A method of treating a neurodegenerative disease comprising administering to a subject in need therof an effective amount of the pharmaceutical composition of claim 5, wherein the neurodegenerative disease is Alzheimer's disease.
 15. A method of enhancing autophagic flux comprising providing to a cell or a protein aggregate an effective amount of the pharmaceutical composition of claim
 5. 16. A method of treating a proteinopathy comprising adminstering to a subject in need thereof an effective amount of the pharmaceutical composition of claim
 5. 17. A method of treating a tauopathy comprising adminstering to a subject in need thereof an effective amount of the pharmaceutical composition of claim
 5. 18. A method of treating a neurodegenerative disease comprising adminstering to a subject in need thereof an effective amount of a compound having the following formula:

wherein one of Y¹ and Y² is CH and one of Y¹ and Y² is N; wherein X is selected from the group consisting of H, halide, and aryl; wherein R¹ is selected from the group consisting of optionally substituted thioheteroaryl, hydroxyl-substituted (2-aminoethyl)aryl, halide, and optionally substituted thiocycloalkyl wherein 1-3 carbon atoms of the cycloalkyl is optionally replaced with a heteroatom selected from the group consisting of O, S and N, and thioaryl, or a salt, enantiomer, racemate, mixture thereof, or a combination thereof, wherein the neurodegenerative disease is a proteinopathy.
 19. The method of claim 18, wherein the proteinopathy is a tauopathy.
 20. The method of claim 18, wherein the proteinopathy is Alzheimer's disease.
 21. A method of treating a neurodegenerative disease comprising administering to a subject in need thereof an effective amount of a compound having the following formula:

wherein Y¹ is CH; wherein Y² is N; wherein X is halide; wherein R¹ is selected from the group consisting of optionally substituted thioheteroaryl, optionally substituted (2-aminoethyl)aryl, halide, and optionally substituted thiocycloalkyl wherein 1-3 carbon atoms of the cycloalkyl is optionally replaced with a heteroatom selected from the group consisting of O, S and N, and thioaryl, or a salt, enantiomer, racemate, mixture thereof, or combination thereof wherein the neurodegenerative disease is a proteinopathy.
 22. The method of claim 21, wherein the proteinopathy is a tauopathy.
 23. The method of claim 21, wherein the proteinopathy is Alzheimer's disease. 